Notas

^[1] Homero, La Odisea, Libro 1, Línea 58 (traducción de Alexander Pope). Línea 32 (traducción de José Luis Calvo). <<

^[2] Observer, 11 de febrero de 2001. <<

^[3] San Francisco Chronicle, 11 de febrero de 2001. <<

^[4] New York Times, 12 de febrero de 2001. <<

^[5] Nota de la editorial: A lo largo de este libro y según el contexto, «nurture» se ha traducido como «ambiente o entorno» que engloba la educación, la cultura, la familia y todos aquellos elementos externos que pueden influir en nuestra naturaleza. Por otra parte, «nature» se ha traducido como naturaleza o herencia. <<

^[6] Véase http://web.fccj.org/ethall/trivia/solvay.htm. <<

^[1] SHAKESPEARE, W., King Lear, Acto 3, escena 4. <<

^[2] Keynes, R. D. (ed.), Charles Darwin’s Beagle Diary, Cambridge University Press, 1988. <<

^[3] Ibídem. <<

^[4] KEYNES, R. D., Annie’s Box, 4th Estate, 2001. <<

^[5] Cfr. DEGLER, C. N., In Search of Human Nature, Oxford University Press, 1991. <<

^[6] Cfr. MIDGLEY, M., Beast and Man, Routledge, 1978. <<

^[7] BUDIANSKY, S., If a Lion Could Talk, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998. [Si los animales hablaran… no les entenderíamos, Arteles, 2001]. <<

^[8] Buffon’s Natural History (abreviada), Londres, 1792. <<

^[9] BEWICK, T., A General History of Quadrupeds, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1807. <<

^[10] MORRIS, R. y Morris, D., Men and Apes, Hutchinson, 1966. <<

^[11] GOODALL, J., Through a Window; Houghton Mifflin, 1990. [A través de la ventana, Salvat, 1994]. <<

^[12] Ibídem. [A través de la ventana, Salvat, 1994]. <<

^[13] RENDELL, L. y WHITEHEAD, H., «Culture in whales and dolphins». Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 2001, pp. 309–324. <<

^[14] CALL, J., «Chimpanzee social cognition», Trendsin Cognitive Science, 5, 2001, pp. 388–393. <<

^[15] MALIK, K, What Is It to Be Human, Institute of Ideas, 2001. <<

^[16] DARWIN, C., The Descent of Man, John Murray, 1871. [El origen del hombre, M. E. Editores, 1994]. <<

^[17] MALIK, K, What Is It to Be Human? Institute of Ideas, 2001. <<

^[18] MIDGLEY, M., Beast and Man, Routledge, 1978. <<

^[19] ZUH, M., Sexual Selections, University of California Press, 2002. <<

^[20] VAN SCHAIK, C. P. y KAPPELER, P. M., «Infanticide risk and the evolution of male–female association in primates», Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 264,1997, pp. 1687–1694. <<

^[21] WRANGHAM, R. W., JONES, J. H., LADEN, G., PILBEAM, D., y CONKIN–BRITTAIN, N., «The raw and the stolen. Cooking and the ecology of human origins», en Current Anthropology, 40,1999, pp. 567–594. <<

^[22] RIDLEY, M., The Origins of Virtue, Penguin, 1996. <<

^[23] WRANGHAM, R. W. y PETERSON, D., Demonic Males, Bloomsbury, 1997. <<

^[24] DIXON, ALAN, Correspondencia por correo electrónico. <<

^[25] http://www.blockbonobofoundation.org. <<

^[26] EBERSBERGER, I., METZIER, D., SCHWARZ, C., y PAABO, S., «Genomewide comparison of DNA sequences between human and chimpanzees», American Journal of Human Genetics, 70, 2002, pp. 1490–1497. <<

^[27] BRITTEN, R. J., «Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 2002, pp. 13633–13635. <<

^[28] KING, M. C. y WILSON, A. C., «Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees», Science, 188,1975, pp. 107–116. <<

^[29] SIBLEY, C. G. y AHLQUIST, J. E., «The phylogeny of the hominoid primates, as indicated by DNA–DNA hybridization», Journal of Molecular Evolution, 20,1984, pp. 2–15. <<

^[30] JOHNSON, M. E., VIGGIANO, L., BAILEY, J. A., ABDUL–RAUF, M., GOODWIN, G., ROCCHI, M., y EICHLER, E. E., «Positive selection of a gene during the emergence of humans and African apes», Nature, 413, 2001, pp. 514–519. <<

^[31] HAYAKAWA, T., SATTA, Y., GAGNEUX, P., VARKI, A., y TAKAHATA, N., «Alu–mediated inactivation of the human CMP–Nacetyineuraminic acid hydroxylase gene», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 2001, pp. 11399–11404. <<

^[32] Entrevista a Ajit Varki. Véase también CHOU, H. H. et al, «A mutation in human CMP–sialic acid hydroxylase occurred after the Homo–Pan divergence», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95, 1998, pp. 11751–11756; GAGNEUX, P. y VARKI, A., «Genetic differences between humans and great apes», Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 18, 2001, pp. 2–13; y VARKI, A., «Loss of Nglycolylneuraminic acid in humans: Mechanisms, consequences, and implications for hominoid evolution», Year–book of Physical Anthropology, 44, 2001, pp. 54–69. <<

^[33] H AMMER, C. J., TYLER, H. D., LOSKUTOFF, N. M., ARMSTRONG, D. L., FUNK, D. J., LINDSEY, B. R., y SIMMONS, L. G., «Compromised development of calves (Bos gaurus) derived from in vitro–generated embryos and transferred interspecifically into domestic cattle (Bos taurus)», Theriogenology, 55, 2001, pp. 1447–1455; y Loskutoff, N., Correspondencia por correo electrónico. <<

^[34] En esto existe cierta confusión terminológica. Algunos biólogos utilizan «promotor» para indicar el sitio al que se une la enzima ARN polimerasa tras ser captada por un factor de transcripción. Yo lo utilizo aquí en un sentido más amplio para referirme a la secuencia reguladora completa del gen. <<

^[35] BELTING, H. G., SHANSHIIKANT, C. S., y RUDDLE, F. H., «Modification of expression and cis–regulation of Hoxc8 in the evolution of diverged axial morphology», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95, pp. 2355–2360. <<

^[36] COHN, M. J. y TICKLE, C., «Developmental basis of limblessness and axial patterning in snakes», Nature, 399,1999, pp. 474–479. <<

^[37] PTASHNE, M. y GANN, A., Genes and Signlis, Coid Spring Harbor Press, 2002; también la entrevista a Alex Gann. <<

^[38] CARROLL, S. B., «Endless forms: The evolution of gene regulation and morphological diversity», Cell, 101, 2000, pp. 577–580. <<

^[39] COPPINGER, R. y COPPINGER, L., Dogs: A Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior, and Evolution, Scribner, 2001. <<

^[40] SEMENDEFERI, K., ARMSTRONG, E., SCHLEICHER, A., ZILLES, K, y VAN HOESEN, G. W., «Limbic frontal cortex in hominoids: A comparative study of area 13», American journal of Physical Antbropology, 106,1998, pp. 129–155. <<

^[41] WRANGHAM, R. W., PILBEAM, D., y HARE, B., Convergent paedomorphism in bonobos, domesticated animals, and humans: The role of selection for reduced aggression (inédito). <<

^[42] WRANGHAM, R. W. y PILBEAM, D., All Apes Great and Small, volumen I, Chimpanzees, Bonobos, and Gorillas (ed. Galdikas, B., ERICKSON, N., y SHEERAN, L. K.), 2001, Plenum; también WRARGHAM, R. W., Conferencia en Coid Spring Harbor, President’s Council, mayo de 2001. <<

^[43] Citado en el New York Times, 24 de septiembre de 2002. <<

^[44] IQ, Intelligence Quotients, es el cociente intelectual (CI), de modo que cuantas más repeticiones IQ se den en una especie, más alto será su CI. A fin de conservar el juego de palabras inglés, en esta ocasión se ha dejado sin traducir IQ. (N. de la T.). <<

^[45] BOND, J., ROBERTS, E., MOCHIDE, G. H., HAMPSHIRE, D. J., SCOTT, S., ASKHAM, J. M., SPRINGELL, K., MAHADEVAN, M., CROW, Y. J., MARKHAM, A. F., WALSH, C. A., y WOODS, C. G., «ASPM es un determinante fundamental del tamaño de la corteza cerebral», Nature Genetics, 32, 2002, pp. 316–320. <<

^[1] SPALDING, D. A., «Instinct: With original observations on young animals», Macmillans Magazine, 27,1873, pp. 282–293. <<

^[2] MYERS, G. E., William James: His Life and Throught, Yale University Press, 1986. <<

^[3] BENDER, B., The Descent of Love: Darwin and the Theory of Sexual Selection in American Fiction, 1871–1926, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. <<

^[4] JAMES, W., The Principies of Psychology, Henry Holt, 1890. <<

^[5] MYEARS, G. E., William, James: His Life and Throught, Yale University Press, 1986. <<

^[6] DAWKINS, R., The Blind Watchmaker, Norton, 1986. [El relojero ciego, RBA Coleccionables, 1993]. <<

^[7] DENNETT, D., Darwin’s Dangerous Idea, Penguin, 1995.

(N. de la T.) «Skyhook» es un helicóptero cuyo fuselaje está configurado para elevarse provisto de un cordel de acero y un gancho para alzar y transportar objetos pesados. <<

^[8] JAMES, W., The Principies of Psychology, Henry Holt, 1890. <<

^[9] INSEL, T. R. y SHAPIRO, L. E., «Oxytocin receptor distribution reflects social organization in monogamous aird polygamous voles», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89, 1992, pp. 5981–5985. <<

^[10] ARGIOLAS, A., MELIS, M. R., STANCAMPIANO, R., y GESSA, G. L., «Penile erection and yawning induced by oxytocin and related peptides: Structure–activity relationship», Peptides, 10, 1989, pp. 559–563. <<

^[11] INSEL, T. R. y SHAPIRO, L. E., «Oxytocin receptor distribution reflects social organization in monogamous and polygamous voles», Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 89, 1992, pp. 5981–5985. <<

^[12] FERGUSON, J. N., YOUNG, L. J., HEARN, E. E, MATZUK, M. M., INSEL, T. R. y WINSLOW, J. T., «Social amnesia in mice lacking the oxytocin gene». Nature Genetics, 25, 2000, pp. 284–288. <<

^[13] YOUNG, L. J., WANG, Z., e INSEL, T. R., «Neuroendocrine bases of monogamy», Trends in Neurosáences, 21, 1998, pp. 71–75. <<

^[14] INSEL, T. R., WINSLOW J. T., WANG, Z., y YOUNG, L. J., «Oxytocin, vasopressin, and the neuroendocrine basis of pair bond formation», Advancesin Experimental and Medical Biology, 449, 1998, pp. 215–224. <<

^[15] INSEL, T. R. y YOUNG, L. J., «The neurobiology of attachment», Nature Reviews in Neuroscience, 2, 2001, pp. 129–136. <<

^[16] WANG, Z., YU, G., CASCIO, C., LIU, Y., GINGRICH, B., e INSEL, T. R., «Dopamine D2 receptor–mediated regulation of partner preference in female prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster): A mechanism for pair bonding?», Behavioral Neuroscience, 113, 1999, pp. 602–611. <<

^[17] JANKOWIAK, W. R. y FISHER, E. F., «A cross–cultural perspective on romantic love», Ethology, 31, 1992, pp. 149–155. <<

^[18] INSEL. T. R., GINGRICH, B. S., y YOUNG, L. J., «Oxytocin: Who needs it?», Progress in Brain Research, 133, 2001, pp. 59–66. <<

^[19] BARTELS, A. y ZEKI, S., «The neural basis of romantic love», Neuroreport, 11, 2000, pp. 3829–3834. <<

^[20] CARTER, C. S., «Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love», Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 1998, pp. 779–818. <<

^[21] RIDLEY, M., The Red Queen, Penguin, 1993. <<

^[22] TINBERGEN, N., The Study of lnstinct, Oxford University Press, 1951. <<

^[23] GINSBURG, B. E., «Fellow travellers on the road to the genetics of behavior: Mice, rats, and dogs. Conferencia en la International Behavioural and Neural Genetics Society», 8–10 de noviembre de 2001, San Diego (California). <<

^[24] KONNER, M., The Tangled Wing. Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit, 2.ª edición, W. H. Freeman, 2001. <<

^[25] BUDIANSKY, S., The Truth about Dogs. Viking Penguin, 2000. [La verdad sobre los perros, Planeta, 2002]. <<

^[26] Se puede encontrar un catálogo semejante sobre toros en www.genuspc.com. <<

^[27] EIB–EIBESFELDT, I., Human Ethology, Aldine de Gruyter, 1989. [Biología del comportamiento humano: manual de etología humana, Alianza, 1993]; EKMAN, P. «Afterword: Universality of emotional expression? A personal history of the dispute», en DARWIN, C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Oxford University Press, 1998. <<

^[28] BUSS, D. M., The Evolution of Desire, Basic Books, 1994. [La evolución del deseo: estrategias del emparejamiento humano, Alianza, 1997]. <<

^[29] BUSS, D. M., The Dangerous Passion, Bloomsbury, 2000. <<

^[30] Se pueden encontrar citas de esto casi por todas partes en Internet. <<

^[31] DIAMOND, M., «A critical evaluation of the ontogeny of human sexual behavior», Quartoíy Review of Biology, 40, 1965, pp. 147–175. <<

^[32] COLAPINTO, J., As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl, Harper Collins, 2000. <<

^[33] REINER, W. G., «Assignment of sex in neonates with ambiguous genitalia», Current Opinión in Pediatrics, 11, 1999, pp. 363–365. También un artículo en el Times (Londres), 26 de junio de 2001, de Lisa MELTON: «Ethics and gender». <<

^[34] LUTCHMAYA, S., BARON–COHEN, S., y RAGGATT, P., «Foetal testosterone and eye contact in 12 month oíd human infants», Infant Behavior Development (en prensa). <<

^[35] CONNELLAN, H., BARON–COHEN, S., WHEELWRIGHT, S., BATKI, A., y AHLUWALIA, J.,. «Sex differences in human neonatal social perception», Infant Behavior and Development, 23, 2000, pp. 113–118. <<

^[36] BARON–COHEN, S., «The extreme male brain theory of autism», Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 2002, pp. 248–254. <<

^[37] BARON–COHEN, S., «Autism: Deficits in folk psychology exist alongside superiority in folk physics», en Understanding Other Minds (ed. BARON–COHEN, S., TAGER–FLUSBERG, H., y COHEN, D. J.), 2000, pp. 73–82; BARON–COHEN, S., WHEELWRIGHT, S., SKINNER, R., MARTIN, J., y CLUBLEY, E., «The autism spectrum quotient: Evidence from Asperger syndrome high–functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians», Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 2002, pp. 5–17. <<

^[38] Entrevista a S. Baron–Cohen. <<

^[39] FRITH, C. y FRITH, U., «The physiological basis of theory of mind: Functional neuroimaging studies», en Understanding Other Minds (ed. BARON–COHEN, S., TAGER–FLUSBERG, H., y COHEN, D. J.), 2000, pp. 334–356. <<

^[40] TOOBY, J. y COSMIDES, L., «The psychological foundations of culture», en The Adapted Mind (ed. BARKOW, J. H., COSMIDES, L., y TOOBY, J.), Oxford University Press, 1992. <<

^[41] PINKER, S., The Language Instinct, Harper Collins, 1994. [El instinto del lenguaje, Alianza, 2003]. <<

^[42] SHARMA, J., ANGELUCCI, A., y SUR, M., «Induction of visual orientaron modules in auditory cortex», Nature 404, 2000, pp. 841–847. <<

^[43] FINLAY, B. L., DARLINGTON, R. B., y NICASTRO, N., «Developmental structure in brain evolution», Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24, 2001, pp. 263–308. <<

^[44] BARTON, R. A. y HARVEY, R H., «Mosaic evolution of brain structure in mammals», Nature, 405, 2000, pp. 1055–1058. <<

^[45] FODOR, J., The Mind Doesn’t Work That Way, MIT Press, 2001. <<

^[46] PINKER, S., How the Mind Works, Norton, 1997.[Cómo funciona la mente, Destino, 2001]. <<

^[47] LEE, D., «Introduction to Plato», The Republic, Penguin, 1987. <<

^[48] NEVILLE–SINGTON, P. y SINGTON, D., Paradise Dreamed: How Utopian Thinkers Have Changed the World, Bloomsbury, 1993. <<

^[1] Conversación con el autor, Montreal, 2002. <<

^[2] GALTON, F., Hereditary Genius, 1869. <<

^[3] CANDOLLE, A. de, Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siécles, 1872. <<

^[4] GALTON, F., English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture, 1874. <<

^[5] SHAKESPEARE, W., La Tempestad, Acto 4, escena 1. <<

^[6] El texto de Mulcaster «Positions» se puede encontrar en http://www.ucs.mun.ca/wbarker/positions–txt.html. <<

^[7] SHAKESPEARE, W., El sueño de una noche de verano, Acto 3, escena 2. <<

^[8] GALTON, F., «The history of twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture», Frasers Magazine, 12, 1875, pp. 566–576. <<

^[9] GILHAM, N., A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African Exploration to the Birth of Eugenics, Oxford University Press, 2001. <<

^[10] RIDLEY, M., Genome, 4th Estate, 1999. [Genoma. Taurus, 2000]. <<

^[11] LIFTON, R. J., The Nazi Doctors, Basic Books, 1986. <<

^[12] WRIGHT, W., Born That Way, Routledge, 1999. [Así nacemos, Taurus, 2000]. <<

^[13] Un resumen excelente de los pormenores de los gemelos se encuentra en: SEGAL, N., Entwined Lives, Dutton, 1999. <<

^[14] Una revisión general sobre la genética de la conducta podemos encontrarla en: PLOMIN, R., DEFRIES, J. C., CRAIG, I. W., y MCGUFFIN, R, Behavioral Genetics in the Postgenomic Era, American Psychological Association, 2002. <<

^[15] WRIGHT, W., Born That Way, Routledge, 1999. [Así nacemos, Taurus, 2000]. <<

^[16] FARBER, S. L., Identical Twins Reared Apart: A Reanalysis, Basic Books, 1987. <<

^[17] Existen pruebas de que, genéticamente, los mellizos son en realidad más parecidos que los hermanos, porque aunque proceden de un espermatozoide distinto a menudo proceden también del mismo oocito materno, dos de cuyos pronúcleos derivan en óvulos. Sin embargo, esto hace que sea más notable que sus personalidades resulten tan diferentes comparados con los gemelos. <<

^[18] BOUCHARD, T. J., MCGUE, M., LYKKEN, D., y TELLEGEN, A., «Intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness: Genetics and environmental influences and personality correlates», Twin Research, 2, 1999, pp. 88–98; KIRK, K. M., EAVES, L. J., y MARTIN, N., «Self–transcendence as a measure of spirituality in a sample of older Australian twins», Twin Research, 2, 1999, pp. 81–87. MCCOURT K, BOUCHARD T. J., LYKKEN D. T., TELLEGEN A., y KEYES M., «Authoritarianism revisited: genetic and environmental influences examined in twins reared apart and together», Personality and Individual Differences, 27, pp. 985–1014. <<

^[19] NELKIN, D. y LINDEE, M. S., The DNA Mystique, W. H. Freeman, 1996. <<

^[20] Sitio web de la Fundación Pioneer. <<

^[21] Cfr. WRIGHT, W., Born That Way, Routledge, 1999. [Así nacemos, Taurus, 2000]. <<

^[22] PINKER, S., The Blank Slate, Penguin, 2002. [La tabla rasa, Paidós Ibérica, 2003]. <<

^[23] ELEY, T. C., LICHTENSTEIN, P., y STEVENSON, J., «Sex differences in the ethology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior: Results from two twin studies», Child Development, 70,1999, pp. 155–168. <<

^[24] MISCHEL, W., Introduction to Personality, Holt, Rinehart y Winston, 1981. <<

^[25] Entrevista a Thomas Bouchard. <<

^[26] CLARK, W. R. y GRUNSTEIN, M., Are We Hard–Wired? The Role of Genes in Human Behavior, Oxford University Press, 2000. <<

^[27] BOUCHARD, T. J. Jr., «Genes, environment and personality», en The Nature–Nurture Debate (ed. CECI, S. J. y WILLIAMS, W. M.), Blackwell, 1999, pp. 98–103. <<

^[28] KRUGER, R. Ponencia del 10.º Congreso Internacional sobre Estudios de Gemelos, Londres, 4–7 de julio de 2001. <<

^[29] GRILO, C. M. y POGUE–GEILE, M. F., «The nature of environmental influences on weight and obesity», Psychological Bulletin, 110, 1991, pp. 520–537. <<

^[30] NESSE, RANDOLPH, correo electrónico. Véase también: SRIJAN, S., NESSE, R. M., STOLTENBERG, S. F., LI, S., GLEIBERMAN, L., CHAKRAVARTI, A., WEDER, A. B., y BURMEISTER, M., «A BDNF coding variant is associated with the NEO personality inventory domain neuroticism, a risk factor for depression», Neuropsychopharmacology (en prensa). Publicado originalmente el 27 de agosto de 2002 en http://www.acnp.org/citations.Nppo82902374. <<

^[31] BOUCHARD, T–J. Jr, LYKKEN, D. T., MCGUE, M., SEGAL, N. L., y TELLEGEN, A., «Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared», Science, 250,1990, pp. 223–228. <<

^[32] EAVES, L., D’ONOFRIO, B., y RUSSELL, R., «Transmission of religión and attitudes», Twin Research, 2,1999, pp. 59–61. <<

^[33] Entrevista a T. Tully. <<

^[34] TURKHEIMER, E., «Heritability and biological explanation», Psychology Reviezv, 105,1998, pp. 782–791. <<

^[35] Entrevista a Zach Mainen. <<

^[36] JENSEN, A., «How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement?», Harvard Educational Review, 39,1969, pp. 1–123. <<

^[37] HERRNSTEIN, R. J. y MURRAY, C., The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life, Free Press, 1994. <<

^[38] POSTHUMA, D., NEALE, M. C., BOOMSMA, D. I., y de Geus, E. J., «Are smarter brains running faster? Heritability of alpha peak frequency, IQ, and their interrelation», Behavior Genetics, 31, 2001, pp. 567–579. <<

^[39] THOMPSON, P. M., CANNON, T. D., NARR, K. L., VAN ERP, T., POUTANEN, V. P., HUTTUNEN, M., LOHNQVIST, J., STANDERTSKJOLD–NORDENSTAM, G., KAPRIO, J., KHALEDY, M., DAIL, R., ZOUMALAN, C. I., y TOGA, A. W., «Genetic influences on brain structure», Nature Neuroscience, 4, 2001, pp. 1253–1258; POSTHUMA, D., DE GEUS, E. J., BAARE, W. F., HULSHOFF POL, E., KAHN, R. S., y BOOMSMA, D. I., «The association between brain volume and intelligence is of genetic origin», Nature Neuroscience, 5, 2002, pp. 83–84. <<

^[40] TURKHEIMER, E., HALEY, A., D’ONOFRIO, B., WALDRON, M., EMERY, R. E., y GOTTESMAN, I., «Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of intelligence in impoverished children», Comunicación a la reunión anual de la Behavior Genetics Association, Cambridge, julio de 2001. <<

^[41] MCGUE, M., BOUCHARD, T. J. Jr, IACONO, W. G., y LYKKEN, D. T., «Behavior genetics of cognitive ability: A life–span perspective», Nature Nurture and Psychology (ed. PLOMIN, R. y MCCLEARN, G. E.), American Psychological Association, 1993; también MCCLEARN, G. E. etal, «Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80+ years old», Science, 276, 1997, pp. 1560–1563. <<

^[42] Entrevista a T. Eley. <<

^[43] DICKENS, W. T. y FLYNN, J. R., «Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved», Psychological Review, 108, pp. 346–369. <<

^[44] WILLIAMS, A. G., RAYSON, M. P., JUBB, M., WORLD, M., WOODS, D. R. HAYWARD, M., MARTIN, J., HUMPHRIES, S. E., y MONTGOMERY, H. E., «The ACE gene and muscle performance», Nature, 403, 2000, p. 614. <<

^[45] RIDLEY, M., The Red Queen, Penguin, 1993. <<

^[46] RADCLIFFE–RICHARDS, J., Human Nature after Darwin, Routledge, 2000. <<

^[47] FLYNN, J. R., La historia de la mente americana en el siglo XX: Una hipótesis para explicar el incremento del CI a lo largo del tiempo y un argumento a favor de la inutilidad de g (inédito). <<

^[48] Para los que sientan curiosidad por la novela inédita de Galton, se ofrece un completo resumen en su biografía escrita por Nicholas Gilham citada anteriormente. <<

^[1] JAMES, W., Principies of Psychology, 1980. <<

^[2] Cfr. SHORTER, E., A History of Psychiatry, John Wiley and Sons, 1997. [Historia de la psiquiatría, J&C Ediciones Médicas, 1998]. <<

^[3] FROMM–REICHMANN, F., «Notes on the development of treatment of schizophrenics by psychoanalytic psychotherapy», Psychiatry, 11, 1948, pp. 263–273. <<

^[4] POLLAK, R., The Creation of DrB: a Biography of Bruno Bettelheim, Simón and Schuster, 1997. <<

^[5] FOLSTEIN, S. E. y MANKOSKI, R. E., «Chromosome 7q: Where autism meets language disorder?», American Journal of Human Genetics, 67, 2000, pp. 278–281. <<

^[6] James, O., They F*** You Up: How to Survive Family Life, Bloomsbury, 2002. <<

^[7] El psiquiatra y escritor Randolph Nesse lo denomina el principal error de la investigación psiquiátrica. <<

^[8] Cfr. TORREY, E. F, Surviving Schizophrenia: A Family Manual, Harper and Row, 1988. <<

^[9] SHORTER, E., A History of Psychiatry. John Wiley and Sons, 1997. [Historia de la psiquiatría, J&C Ediciones Médicas, 1998]. <<

^[10] WAHLBERG, K E., WYNNE, L. C., OJA, H. et al, «Gene–environment interaction in vulnerability to schizophrenia: Findings from the Finnish adoptive family study in schizophrenia», American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1997, pp. 355–362. <<

^[11] KETY, S. S. e INGRAHAM, L. J., «Genetic transmission and improved diagnosis of schizophrenia from pedigrees of adoptees», Journal of Psychiatric Research, 26,1992, pp. 247–255. <<

^[12] TSUANG, M., STONE, W. S., y FARAONE, S. V., «Genes, environment, and schizophrenia», British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (suplemento 40), 2001, pp. 18–24. <<

^[13] SHERRINGTON, R., BRYNJOLFSSON, J., PETURSSON, H. et al, «Localization of a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia of chromosome 5», Nature, 336,1988, pp. 164–167; BASSETT, A. S., MCGILLVRAY, B. C., JONES, B. D. et al, «Partial trisomy of chromosome 5 cosegregating with schizophrenia», Lancet, 1988, pp. 799–801. <<

^[14] LEVINSON, D. F. y MOWRY, B J., «Genetics of schizophrenia», en Genetic Influences on Neural and Behavioral Functions (ed. PFAFF, D. W., JOH, T., y MAXSON, S. C.), 1999, pp. 47–82. CRC Press, Boca Ratón. <<

^[15] MIRNICS, K., MIDDLETON, F. A., LEWIS, D. A., y LEVITT, P., «Analysis of complex brain disorders with gene expression microarrays: Schizophrenia as a disease of the synapse», Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 2001, pp. 479–486. <<

^[16] TSUANG, M., STONE, W. S., y FARAONE, S. V., «Genes, environment, and schizophrenia», British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, (suplemento 40), 2001 pp. 18–24. <<

^[17] MEDNICK, S. A., MACHÓN, R. A., HUTTUNEN, M. O., BONETT, D., «Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic», Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1988, pp. 189–192; MUNK–JORGENSEN, P. y EWALD, H., «Epidemiology in neurobiological research: Exemplified by the influenza–schizophrenia theory», British. Journal of Psychiatry, 178, (suplemento 40), 2001, pp. 30–32. <<

^[18] DAVIS, J. O., PHELPS, J. A., y BRACHA, H. S., «Prenatal development of monozygotic twins and concordance for schizophrenia», en The Nature Nurture Debate (ed. CECI, S. J. y WILLIAMS, W. W.), Blackwell, 1999. <<

^[19] TSUANG, M., STONE, W. S., y FARAONE, S. V., «Genes, environment, and schizophrenia», British Journal of Psychiatry, 2001, 178, (suplemento 40), pp. 18–24. <<

^[20] DEB–RINKER, P., KLEMPAN, T. A., O’REILLY, R. L., TORREY, E. E, y SINGH, S. M., «Molecular characterization of a MSRV–like sequence identified by RDA from monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia», Genomics, 61,1999, pp. 133–144. <<

^[21] KARLSSON, H., BACHMANN, S., SCHRODER, J., MCARTHUR, J., TORREY, E. F., y YOLKEN, R. H., «Retroviral RNA identified in the cebrebrospinal fluids and brains of individuáis with schizophrenia», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 2001, pp. 4634–4639. <<

^[22] IMPAGATIELLO, F., GUIDOTTI, A. R., PESOLD, C. et al, «A decrease of reelin expression as a putative vulnerability factor in schizophrenia», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95,1998, pp. 15718–15723. <<

^[23] FATEMI, S. H., EMAMIAN, E. S., KIST, D., SIDWELL, R. W., NAKAJIMA, K., AKHTER, P., SHIER, A., SHEIKH, S., y BAILEY, K., «Defective corticogenesis and reduction in reelin immunoreactivity in cortex and hippocampus of prenatally infected neonatal mice», Molecular Psychiatry, 4, 1999, pp. 145–154. <<

^[24] FATEMI, S. H. «Reelin mutations in mouse and man: From reeler mouse to schizophrenia, mood disorders, autism, and lissencephaly», Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 2001, pp. 129–133. <<

^[25] HONG, S. E., SHUGART, Y. Y., HUANG, D. T., SHAHWAN, S. A., GRANT, P. E., HOURIHANE, J. O., MARTIN, N. D., y WALSH, C. A., «Autosomal recessive lissencephaly with cerebellar hypoplasia is associated with human RELN mutations», Nature Genetics, 26, 2000, pp. 93–96. <<

^[26] CANNON, M., CASPI, A., MOFFITT, T. E., HARRINGTON, H., TAYLOR, A., MURRAY, R. M., y POULTON, R., «Evidence for early–childhood, pandevelopmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: Results from a longitudinal birth cohort», Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 2002, pp. 449–456. <<

^[27] WEINBERGER, D. R., «Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia», Archives of General Psychiatry, 44,1987, pp. 660–669; WEINBERGER, D. R., «From neuropathology to neurodevelopment», Lancet, 26,1995, pp. 552–557. <<

^[28] MIRNICS, K., MIDDLETON, F. A., LEWIS, D. A., y LEVITT, P., «Analysis of complex brain disorders with gene expression microarrays: Schizophrenia as a disease of the synapse», Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 2001, pp. 479–486. <<

^[29] HORROBIN, D., The Madness of Adam and Eve, Bantam, 2001. <<

^[30] PEET, M., GLEN, I., y HORROBIN, D., Phospholipid Spectrum Disorder in Psychiatry, Marius Press, 1999. <<

^[31] JABLENSKY, A., SARTORIUS, N. ERNBERG, G., ANKER, M., KORTEN, A. COOPER, J. E., DAY, R., y BERTELSON, A., «Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence, and course in different cultures. A World Health Organisation Ten Country Study», Psychological Medicine Supplement, 20, 1999, pp. 1–97. <<

^[32] Cfr. HORROBIN, D., The Madness of Adam and Eve, Bantam, 2001. <<

^[33] STEVENSON, A., y PRICE, J., Prophets, Cults, and Madness, Duckworth, Londres, 2000. <<

^[34] SIMONTON, D. K., The Orígins of Genius, Oxford University Press, 2002. <<

^[35] NASAR, S., A Beautiful Mind: A Biography of John Forbes Nash Jr., Faber and Faber, Londres, 1998. [Una mente prodigiosa, Mondadori, 2001]. <<

^[1] DAWKINS, 1981. Véase http://www.worldfdawkins.com/Dawkins/ Work/Reviews/1985–01–24notinourgenes.htm. <<

^[2] SINGER, D. G. y REVENSON, T. A., A Piaget Primer. How a Child Thinks, 2.ª edición, Plume, 1996. <<

^[3] LEHRMAN, D. S., «A critique of Konrad Lorenz’s theory of instinctive behavior», Quarterly Review of Biology, 28,1953, pp. 337–363. <<

^[4] TINBERGEN, N., «On the aims and methods of ethology», Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20,1963, pp. 410–433. <<

^[5] SCHAFFNER, K. F., «Genes, behavior, and developmental emergentism: One process, indivisible?», Philosophy of Science, 65, 1998, pp. 209–252. <<

^[6] WEST–EBERHARD, M. J., «Evolution in the light of cell biology and vice versa», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95, 1998, pp. 8417–8419. <<

^[7] Por ejemplo, OYAMA, S., Evolution’s Eye, Duke University Press, 2000. <<

^[8] GREENSPAN, R. J., «Understanding the genetic construction of behavior», Scientific American, 1995, pp. 72–78. <<

^[9] WADDINGTON, C. H., Organisers and Genes, Cambridge University Press, 1940. <<

^[10] ARIEW, A., «Innateness is canalization: In defense of a developmental account of innateness», en Biology Meets Psychology: Conjectures, Connections, Constraints (ed. HARDCASTLE, V.), MIT Press, 1999. <<

^[11] BATESON, P. y Martin, P., Design for a Life: How Behaviour Develops, Jonathan Cape, 1999. <<

^[12] Véase la reseña «Not in Our Genes» de Richard Dawkins en New Scientist, 24 de enero de 1985. Disponible también en Internet en http://www.world–of–dawkins.com/Dawkins/Work/Reviews/1985–01–24notinourgenes.htm. <<

^[13] ZHANG, X. y FIRESTEIN, S., «The olfactory receptor gene superfamily of the mouse», Nature Neuroscience, 5, 2002, pp. 124–133. <<

^[14] GOGOS, J. A., OSBORNE, J., NEMES, A., MENDELSON, M., y AXEL, R., «Genetic ablation and restoration of the olfactory topographic map», Cell, 103,2002, pp. 609–620. <<

^[15] WANG, F., NEMES, A., MENDELSON, M., y AXEL, R., «Odorant receptors govern the formation of a precise topographic map», Cell, 93, 1998, pp. 47–60. <<

^[16] HOLT, C., Conferencia pronunciada en la reunión de la Sociedad para las Neurociencias, San Diego (California), noviembre de 2001; y CAMPBELL, D. S. y HOLT, C. E., «Chemotropic responses of retinal growth cones mediated by rapid local protein synthesis and degradation», Neuron, 32, 2001, pp. 1013–1026. <<

^[17] TESSIER–LAVIGNE, M. y GOODMAN, C. S., «The molecular biology of axon guidance», Science, 274, 1996, pp. 1123–1133; Yu, T. W. y BARGMANN, I., «Dynamic regulation of axon guidance», Nature Neuroscience, 4 (Suplemento), 2001, pp. 1169–1176. <<

^[18] RICHARDS, L. J., «Surrounded by Sht–How forebrain commissural axons can be led astray», Neuron, 33, 2002, pp. 153–155. <<

^[19] MARILLAT, V., CASES, O., NGUYEN–BA–CHARVEL, K T., TESSIER–LAVIGNE. M., SOTELO, C., y CHEDOTAL, A., «Spatiotemporal expression patterns of slit and robo genes in the rat brain», Journal of Comparative Neurology, 442, 2002 pp. 130–155; DICKSON, B. J., CLINE, H., POLLEUX, E, y GHOSH, A., «Making connections: Axon guidance and neural plasticity», Embo Reports, 2, 2001, pp. 182–186. <<

^[20] SOUSSI–YANICOSTAS, N., FAIVRE–SARRAILH, C., HARDELIN, J. P., LEMLLIERS, J., ROUGON, G., PETIT, C., «Anosmin–I underlying the X chromosome–linked Kallmann syndrome is an adhesión molecule that can modulate neurite growth in a cell–type specific manner», Journal of Cell Science, 111. 1998, pp. 2953–2965. <<

^[21] HARDELIN, J. P., «Kallmann syndrome: Towards molecular pathogenesis», en Journal of Molecular Endocrinology, 179, 2001, pp. 75–81. <<

^[22] OLIVEIRA, L. M., SEMINARA, S. B., BERANOVA, M., HAYES F. J., VALKENBURGH, S. B., SCHIPHANI, E., COSTA, E. M., LATRONICO, A. C., CROWLEY. W. F., y VALLEJO, M., «The importance of autosomal genes in Kallmann syndrome: Genotype–phenotype correlations and neuroendocrine characteristics», Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 2001, pp. 1532–1538. <<

^[23] DAWKINS, R., The Extended Phenotype, Oxford University Press, 1982. <<

^[24] BRAITENBURG, V., «Patterns of projection in the visual system of the fly. I. Retina–lamina projections», Experimental Brain Research, 3, 1967, pp. 271–298. <<

^[25] LEE, C. H., HERMÁN, T., CLANDININ, T. R., LEE, R., y ZIPURSKY, S. L., «N–cadherin regulates target specificity in the Drosophila visual system», Neuron, 30, 2001, pp. 437–450; CLANDININ, T. R., LEE, C. H., HERMAN, T., LEE, R. C., YANG, A. Y., OVASAPYAN, S., y ZIPURSKY, S. L., «Drosophila LAR regulates R1–R6 and R7 target specificity in the visual system», Neuron, 33, 2001, pp. 237–248. También en la entrevista a L. Zipursky y su conferencia en la Sociedad para la Neurociencia, San Diego (California), noviembre de 2001. <<

^[26] MODREK, B. y LEE, C., «A genomic view of alternative splicing», Nature Genetics, 30, 2002, pp. 13–19. <<

^[27] SCHMUCKER, D., CLEMENS, J. C., SHU, H., WORBY, C. A., XIAO, J., MUDA, M., DIXON, J. E., y ZIPURSKY, S. L., «Drosophila Dscam is an axon guidance receptor exhibiting extraordinary molecular diversity», Cell, 101, 2000, pp. 671–684. <<

^[28] SERAFINI, T., «Finding a partner in a crowd: Neuronal diversity and synaptogenesis», Cell, 98, 1999, pp. 133–136. <<

^[29] WANG, X., SU, H., y BRADLEY, A., «Molecular mechanisms governing Pcdh–gamma gene expression: Evidence for a múltiple promoter and cisalternative splicing model», Genes and Development, 16, 2002, pp. 1890–1905. <<

^[30] WU, Q., y MANIATIS, T., «A striking organization of a large family of human neural cadherin–like cell adhesión genes», Cell, 97, 1999, pp. 779–790; TASIC, B., NABHOLZ, C. E., BALDWIN, K. K, KIM, Y, RUECKERT, E. H., RIBICH, S. A., CRAMER, P., WU, Q., AXEL, R. y MANIATIS, T., «Promoter choice determines splice site selection in Protocadherin alpha and gamma Pre–mRNA splicing», Molecular Cell, 10, 2002, pp. 21–33. <<

^[31] SPECTER, M., «Rethinking the brain», en Best American Science Writing2002 (ed. M. RIDLEY), Harper Collins, 2002. <<

^[32] Entrevista a H. Cline. <<

^[33] GÓMEZ, M., DE CASTRO, E., GUARIN, E., SASAKURA, H., KUHARA, A., MORÍ, I., BARTFAI, T., BARGMANN, C. I., y NEF, P., «Ca2+signalling via the neuronal calcium sensor–1 gene regulates associative learning and memory in C. elegans», Neuron, 30, 2001, pp. 241–248. <<

^[34] RANKIN, C., ROSE, J. y NORMAN, K., «The use of reporter genes to study the effects of experience on the anatomy of an identified synapse in the nematode C. elegans», conferencia pronunciada en el Congreso IBANGS, San Diego (California), noviembre de 2001. <<

^[35] HARLOW, H. y HARLOW, M., «Social deprivation in monkeys», Scientific American, 207,1962, pp. 136–146. <<

^[36] MEANEY, M. J., «Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations», Annual Reviews of Neuroscience, 24, 2001, pp. 1161–1182. <<

^[37] CHAMPAGNE, F., DIORIO, J., SHARMA, S., y MEANEY, M. J., «Naturally occurring variations in maternal behavior in the rat are associated with differences in estrogen–inducible central oxytocin receptors», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 2001, pp. 12736–12741. <<

^[38] FRANCIS, D. D., SZEGDA, K., CAMPBELL, G., MARTIN, W. D., e INSEL, T. R., Epigenetic Sources of Behavioral Differences: Mother Nature Meets Mother Nature (inédito). <<

^[39] HUXLEY, A., Brave New World, Chatto and Windus, 1932. [Un mundo feliz, Plaza & Janés, 2000]. <<

^[1] MILTON, John, El paraíso perdido, Libro 4, 1671. <<

^[2] Cfr. NISBETT, A., Konrad Lorenz, Dent, 1976. [Lorenz, Barcelona, Salvat, 1988]. <<

^[3] Ibídem. <<

^[4] SPALDING, D. A., «Instinct: With original observations on young animals», Macmillan’s Magazine, 27,1873, pp. 282–293. <<

^[5] BATESON, P., «What must be known in order to understand imprinting?», en The Evolution of Cognition (ed. HEYES, C. y HUBER, L.). MIT Press, 2000. <<

^[6] GOTTLIEB, G., Synthesizing Nature–Nurture: Prenatal Roots of Instinctive Behavior, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997. <<

^[7] BARRER, D. J., WINTER, P. D., OSMOND, C., MARGETTS, B., y SIMMONDS S. J., «Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease», Lancet, 8663, 1989, p. 57780. <<

^[8] ERIKSSON, J. G., FORSEN, T, TUOMILEHTO, J., OSMOND, C., y BARRER. D. J., «Early growth and coronary heart disease in later life: Longitudinal study», British Medical Journal, 322, 2001, pp. 949–953. <<

^[9] BATESON, R, «Fetal experience and good adult design», International Journal of Epidemiology, 30, 2001, pp. 928–934. <<

^[10] MANNING, J., MARTIN, S., TRIVERS, R., y SOLER, M., «Second to 4th digit ratio and off spring sex ratio», Journal of Theoretical Biology, 217, 2002, p. 93. <<

^[11] MANNING. J. T. y BUNDRED, P. E., «The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: A new predictor of disease predisposition?», Medical Hypotheses, 54, 2000, pp. 855–857; MANNING, J. T., BARON–COHEN, S., WHEELWRIGHT, S., y SANDERS, G., «The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism», Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43, 2000, pp. 160–164. <<

^[12] BISCHOF, H. J., GEISSLER, E., y ROLLENHAGEN, A., «Limitations of the sensitive period of sexual imprinting: neuroanatomical and behavioral experiments in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata)», Behavioral Brain Research, 133, 2002, pp. 317–322. <<

^[13] BURR, C., A Separate Creation: How Biology Makes Us Gay, Bantam Press, 1996. <<

^[14] Entrevista a M. Bailey. <<

^[15] SYMONS, D., Evolution of Human Sexuality, Oxford University Press, 1979. <<

^[16] BLANCHARD, R., «Fraternal birth order and the maternal immune hypotheses of male homosexuality», Hormones and Behavior, 40, 2001, pp. 105–114. <<

^[17] CANTOR, J. M., BLANCHARD, R., PATERSON, A. D., y BOGAERT, A. F., «How may gay men owe their sexual orientation to fraternal birth order?», Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 2002, pp. 63–71. <<

^[18] BLANCHARD, R. y ELLIS, L., «Birth weight, sexual orientation, and the sex of preceding siblings», Journal of Biosocial Science, 33, 2001, pp. 451–467. <<

^[19] BLANCHARD, R., ZUCKER, K. J., CAVACAS, A., ALLIN, S., BRADLEY, S. J., y SCHACHTER, D. C., «Fraternal birth order and birth weight in probably prehomosexual feminine boys», Hormones and Behavior, 41, 2002, pp. 321–327. <<

^[20] Ibídem. <<

^[21] HARVEY, R. J., MCCABE, B. J., SOLOMONIA, R. O., HORN, G., y Darlison, M. G., «Expression of GABAa receptor gamma4 subunit gene: Anatomical distribution of the corresponding mRNA in the domestic chickforebrain and the effect of imprinting training», European Journal of Neuroscience, 10,1998, pp. 3024–3028. <<

^[22] NEDIVI, E., «Molecular analysis of developmental plasticity in neocortex», Journal of Neurobiology, 41, 1999, pp. 35–47. <<

^[23] HUANG, Z. J., KIRKWOOD, A., PIZZORUSSO, T., PORCIATTI, V., MORALES, BEAR, M. E, MAFFEI, L., y TONEGAWA, S., «BDNF regulates the maturation of inhibition and the critical period of plasticity in mouse visual cortex», Cell, 98,1999, pp. 793–755. <<

^[24] FAGIOLINI, M. y HENSCH, T. K, «Inhibitory threshold for critical–period activation in primary visual cortex», Nature, 404, 2000, pp. 183–186. <<

^[25] Entrevista a J. Huang. <<

^[26] KEGL, J., SENGHAS, A., y COPPOLA, M., «Creation through contact: Sign language emergence and sign language change in Nicaragua», en Comparative Grammatical Change: The Intersection of Language Acquisition, Creole Genesis, and Diachronic Syntax (ed. M. DE GRAFF), MIT Press, 1999; BICKERTON, D., Language and Species, University of Chicago Press, 1990. <<

^[27] http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/LECTURE4/4victor.htm. NEWTON, M., Savage Girls and Wild Boys: A History of Feral Children, Faber, 2002. <<

^[28] http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/LECTURE4/4kaspar.htm. <<

^[29] RYMER, R., Genie: A Scientific Tragedy, Penguin, 1994. <<

^[30] WESTERMARCK, E., History of Human Marriage, Macmillan, 1981. <<

^[31] WOLF, A. P., Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck, Stanford University Press, 1995. <<

^[32] SHEPHER, J., «Mate selection among second–generation kibbutz adolescents: Incest avoidance and negative imprinting», Archives of Sexual Behavior; 1, 1971, pp. 293–307. <<

^[33] WALTER, A., «The evolutionary psychology of mate selection in Morocco–A multivariate analysis», Human Nature, 8,1997, pp. 113–137. <<

^[34] PRICE, J. S., «The Westermarck trap: A possible factor in the creation of Frankenstein», Ethology and Sociobiology, 16,1995, pp. 349–353. <<

^[35] THORNHILL N. W., «An evolutionary analysis of rules regulating human inbreeding and marriage», Behavioral and Brain Services, 14, 1991, pp. 247–260. <<

^[36] GREENBER, M. y LITTLEWOOD, R., «Post–adoption incest and phenotypic matching: Experience, personal meanings, and biosocial implications», British Journal of Medical Psychology, 68,1995, pp. 29–44. <<

^[37] BEVC, I. y SILVERMAN, I., «Early proximity and intimacy between siblings and incestuous behaviour – A test of the Westermarck theory», Ethology and Sociobiology, 14,1993, pp. 171–181. <<

^[38] DEICHMANN, U., Biologists under Hitler, Harvard University Press. 1996. <<

^[39] NISBETT, A., Konrad Lorenz, Dent, 1976. [Lorenz, Barcelona, Salvat, 1988]. <<

^[1] TURGUENIEV, I., Padres e hijos, Madrid, Alianza, 1987. <<

^[2] TODES, D. P., «Pavlov’s physiology factory», Isis, 88, 1997, pp. 205–246. <<

^[3] KIMBLE, G. A., «Evolution of the nature–nurture issue in the history of psychology», en Nature Nurture and Psychology (ed. PLOMIN, R. y MCCLEARN, G. E.), American Psychological Association, 1993. <<

^[4] FROLOV, y R, Pavlov and His School, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co., 1983. <<

^[5] WAELTI, R, DICKINSON, A., y SCHULTZ, W., «Dopamine responses comply with basic assumptions of formal learning theory», Nature, 412, 2001, pp. 43–48. <<

^[6] WATSON, J. B., Behaviorism, Norton, 1924. <<

^[7] DUBNAU, J., GRADY, L., KITAMOTO, T., y TULLY, T., «Disruption of neurotransmission in Drosophila mushroom body blocks retrieval but not acquisition of memory», Nature, 411, 2001, pp. 476–480. <<

^[8] Entrevista a T. Tully. <<

^[9] HUSI, H. y GRANT, S. G. N., «Proteomics of the nervous system», Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 2001, pp. 259–266. <<

^[10] WATSON, J. B., «Psychology as the behaviorist views it», Psychological Review, 20,1913, pp. 158–177. <<

^[11] RILLING, M., «John Watson’s paradoxical struggle to explain Freud», American Psychologist, 55, 2000, pp. 301–312. <<

^[12] WATSON, J. B. y RAYNER, R., «Conditioned emotional reactions», Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3,1920, pp. 1–14. <<

^[13] WATSON, J. B., Behaviorism, Norton, 1924. <<

^[14] FIGES, O., A People’s Tragedy, Jonathan Cape, 1996. [La revolución rusa: la tragedia de un pueblo, Barcelona, Edhasa, 2001]. <<

^[15] FROLOV, Y. R, Pavlov and His School, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co., 1938. <<

^[16] Figes, O., A People’s Tragedy, Jonathan Cape, 1996. [La revolución rusa: la tragedia de un pueblo, Barcelona, Edhasa, 2001]. <<

^[17] Todas las citas de o sobre Lysenko están en JORAVSKY, D., The Lysenko Affair, University of Chicago Press, 1986. <<

^[18] Ibídem. <<

^[19] Ibídem. <<

^[20] GOULD, S. J., Ever since Darwin, Burnett Books, 1978. [Desde Darwin (Reflexiones sobre Historia Natural), Barcelona, Hermann Blume, 1983]. <<

^[21] PINKER, S., The Blank Slate, Penguin, 2002. [La Tabla Rasa: La negación moderna de la Naturaleza Humana, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2003]. <<

^[22] BLUM, D., Love at Goon Park, Perseus Publishing, 2002. <<

^[23] HARLOW, H. E, «The nature of love», American Psychologist, 13,1958, pp. 673–685. <<

^[24] Un resumen del trabajo de Mineka puede verse en: OHMAN, A. y MINEKA, S., «Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning», Psychological Review, 108, 2001, pp. 483–522. <<

^[25] FREDRIKSON, M., ANNAS, R, y WIK, G., «Parental history, aversive exposure, and the development of snake and spider phobia in women», Behavior Research Therapy, 35,1997, pp. 23–28. <<

^[26] LEDOUX, J., Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are, Viking, 2002. <<

^[27] OHMAN, A. y MINEKA, S., «Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning», Psychological Review, 108, 2001, pp. 483–522. <<

^[28] KENDLER, K. S., JACOBSON, K. C., MYERS, J., y PRESCOTT, C. A., «Sex differences in genetic and environmental risk factors for irrational fears and phobias», Psychological Medicine, 32, 2002, pp. 209–217. <<

^[29] HEBB, D. O., The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory, Wiley, 1949. [Organización de la conducta, Barcelona, Debate, 1985]. <<

^[30] ELMAN, J., BATES, E. A., JOHNSON, M. H., KARMILOFF–SMITH, A., PARISI, y PLUNKETT, K., Rethinking Innateness, MIT Press, 1996. <<

^[31] Ibídem. <<

^[32] FODOR, J., The Mind Doesn’t Work That Way, MIT Press, 2001. [La mente no funciona así: alcance y límites de la psicología computacional, Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2003]. <<

^[33] PINKER, S., The Blank Slate, Penguin, 2002. [La Tabla Rasa: La negación moderna de la naturaleza humana, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2003]. <<

^[34] SKINNER, B. E, Walden Two, Prentice may, 1948/1976. [Walden Dos, Barcelona, Círculo de Lectores, 2001]. <<

^[35] Ver www.loshorcones.org.mx. <<

^[1] LOCKE, JOHN, Essay on Human Understanding, 1692. Este libro demuestra que Locke no era tan partidario de la tabla rasa como a menudo se ha dicho. <<

^[2] KUPER, A., Culture: The Anthropologist’s Account, Harvard University Press, 1999. [Cultura: La versión de los antropólogos, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2001]. <<

^[3] MULLER–WHITE, L., Franz Boas among the Inuit of Baffin Island, 1883–1884: Letters and Journals, University of Toronto Press, 1998. <<

^[4] Cfr. DEGLER, C. N., In Search of Human Nature, Oxford University Press, 1991. <<

^[5] Ibídem. <<

^[6] Ver el New York Times, 8 de octubre de 2002, p. F3. Igualmente: SPARKS, C. S. y JANTZ, R. L., «A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 8 de octubre de 2002. <<

^[7] FREEMAN, D., The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research, Westview Press, 1999. <<

^[8] DURKHEIM, E., The rules of the Sociological Method, Free Press, 1892. [Las reglas del método sociológico. Barcelona, Folio, 2003]. <<

^[9] PINKER, S., The Blank Slate, Penguin, 2002. [La Tabla Rasa: La negación moderna de la naturaleza humana, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2003]. <<

^[10] PLOTKIN, H., The Imagined World Made Real: Towards a Natural Science of Culture, Penguin, 2002. <<

^[11] En el programa de televisión The Cultured Ape [El simio culto]. Channel 4, producido por Brian Leith, Scorer Associates. <<

^[12] DE WAAL, F., The Ape and the Sushi Master; Penguin, 2001. [El simio y el aprendiz de sushi: reflexiones de un primatólogo sobre la cultura, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2002]. <<

^[13] TOMASELLO, M., The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition, Harvard University Press, 1999. <<

^[14] DE WAAL, F., The Ape and the Sushi Master, Penguin, 2001. [El simio y el aprendiz de sushi: reflexiones de un primatólogo sobre la cultura, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2002]. <<

^[15] TOMASELLO, M., The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition, Harvard University Press, 1999. <<

^[16] TIGER, L. y FOX, R., The Imperial Animal, Transaction, 1971. <<

^[17] Comunicación personal de G. Rizzolatti. <<

^[18] RIZZOLATTI, G. y ARBIB, M. A., «Language within our grasp», Trends in Neurosciences, 21,1998, pp. 188–194. <<

^[19] IACOBONI, M., KOSKI, L. M., BRASS, M., BEKKERING, H., WOODS, R. R, DUBEAU, M. C., MAZZIOTTA, J. C., y RIZZOLATTI, G., «Reafferent copies of imitated actions in the right superior temporal cortex», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 2001, pp. 13995–13999. <<

^[20] KOHLER, E., KEYSERS, C., UMILTA, M. A., FOGASSI, L., GÁLLESE, V., y RIZZOLATTI, G., «Hearing sounds, understanding actions: Action representation in auditory mirror neurons», Science, 297, 2002, pp. 846–848. <<

^[21] LAI, C. S., FISHER, S. E. et al, «A forkhead–domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder», Nature, 413,2001, pp. 519–523. <<

^[22] ENARD, W., PRZEWORSKI, M., FISHER, S. E., LAI, C. S. L., WIEBE, V., KITANO, T., MONACO, A. R, y PAABO, S., «Molecular evolution of FOXP₂, a gene involved in speech and language», Nature, 418, 2002, pp. 869–872. <<

^[23] IACOBONI, M., WOODS, R. P., BRASS, M., BEKKERING, H., MAZZIOTTA, J. C., y RIZZOLATTI, G., «Cortical mechanisms of human imitation», Science, 286,1999, pp. 2526–2528. <<

^[24] CANTALUPO, C. y HOPKINS, W. D., «Asymmetric Broca’s area in great apes», Nature, 414, 2001, p. 505. <<

^[25] NEWMAN, A. J., BAVELIER, D., CORINA, D., JEZZARD, P., y NEVILLE, H. J., «A critical period for right hemisphere recruitment in American Sign Language processing», Nature Neuroscience, 5, 2002, pp. 76–80. <<

^[26] DUNBAR, R., Gossip, Grooming, and the Evolution of Language, Faber and Faber, 1996. <<

^[27] WALKER, A. y SHIPMAN, R, The Wisdom of Bones, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996. <<

^[28] TATTERSALL, I. Correspondencia por correo electrónico. <<

^[29] WILSON, F. R., The Hand, Pantheon, 1998. <<

^[30] CALVIN, W. H. y BICKERTON, D., Lingua ex Machina, MIT Press, 2001. [Lingua ex machina: la conciliación de las teorías de Darwin y Chomsky sobre el cerebro humano, Barcelona, Gedisa, 2001]. <<

^[31] STOKOE, W. C., Language in Hand: Why Sign Carne befare Speech, Gallaudet University Press, 2001. <<

^[32] DURHAM, W. H., BOYD, R., y RICHERSON, P. J., «Models and forces of cultural evolution», en Human by Nature (ed. WEINGERT, R, Mitchell, S., RICHERSON, P. J., y MAASEN, S., LAWRENCE Erlbaum Associates, 1997. <<

^[33] DEACON, T., The Symbolic Species: The Co–Evolution of Language and the Human Brain, Penguin, 1997. <<

^[34] BLACKMORE, S., The Meme Machine, Oxford University Press, 1999. [La máquina de los memes, Barcelona, Paidós Ibérica, 2000]. <<

^[35] CRONK, L., That Complex Whole: Culture and the Evolution of Human Behavior, Westview Press, 1999. <<

^[36] PITTS, M. y ROBERTS, M., Fairweather Eden, Century, 1997. <<

^[37] KOHN, M., As We Know It: Corning to Terms with an Evolved Mind, Granta, 1999. <<

^[38] LOW, B. S., Why Sex Matters: A Darwinian Look at Human Behavior, Princeton University Press, 2000. <<

^[39] DUNBAR, R., KNIGHT, C., y POWER, C., The Evolution of Culture, Edinburgh University Press, 1999. <<

^[40] WHITEN, A. y BYRNE, R. W. (eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence II, Cambridge University Press, 1997. <<

^[41] WRIGHT, R., Nonzero: History, Evolution, and Human Cooperation, Random House, 2000. <<

^[42] RIDLEY, M., The Origins of Virtue, Penguin, 1996. <<

^[43] OFEK, H., Second Nature, Cambridge University Press, 2001. <<

^[44] TATTERSALL, I., Becoming Human, Harcourt Brace, 1998. [Hacia el ser humano: la singularidad del hombre y la evolución, Barcelona, Península, 1998]. <<

^[45] WRIGHT, R., Nonzero: History, Evolution, and Human Cooperation, Random House, 2000. <<

^[46] RIDLEY, M., The Origins ofVirtue, Penguin, 1996. <<

^[47] NEVILLE–SINGTON, P. y SINGTON, D., Paradise Dreamed: How Utopian Thinkers Have Changed the World, Bloomsbury, 1993. <<

^[48] MILNE, H., Bhagwan: The God That Failed, Caliban Books, 1986. <<

^[1] DENNETT, D., Darwin’s Dangerous Idea, Penguin. [La peligrosa idea de Darwin: evolución y significados de la vida, Barcelona, Galaxia Gutenberg, 2001]. <<

^[2] DE VRIES, H., «Sur la loi de disjonction des hybrides», Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, 130,1900, pp. 845–847. <<

^[3] HENIG, R. M., A Monk and Two Peas, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000. [El monje del huerto, Barcelona, Debate, 2001]. <<

^[4] TUDGE, C., In Mende’s Footnotes, Vintage, 2001; OREL, V., Gregor Mendel: the First Geneticist, Oxford University Press, 1996. <<

^[5] WATSON, J. D. y CRICK, F. H. C., «Molecular structure of nucleic acid: A structure for deoxyribonucleic acid», Nature, 171, 1953, p. 737. WATSON, J. y BERRY, A. DNA: The Secret of Life, Knopf, 2003. [ADN: El Secreto de la Vida, Madrid, Taurus, 2003]. <<

^[6] PTASHNE, M. y GANN, A., Genes and Signais, Coid Spring Harbor Press, 2002. <<

^[7] MIDGLEY, M., «Gene juggling», Philosophy, 54,1979, pp. 439–458. <<

^[8] CANNING, C. y LOVELL–BADGE, R., «Sry and sex determination: How lazy can it be?», Trends in Genetics, 18, pp. 111–113. <<

^[9] Comunicación personal de Randolph Nesse. <<

^[10] CHAGNON, N., Yanomamo: The Last Days of Edén, Harcourt Brace, 1992. <<

^[11] MILLER, G., The Mating Mind, Doubleday, 2000. <<

^[12] WILSON, E. O., Naturalist, Island Press, 1994. [El naturalista, Barcelona, Círculo de Lectores, 1996]. <<

^[13] WILSON, E. O., Sociobiology, Harvard University Press, 1975. [Sociobiología, Barcelona, Omega, 1980]. <<

^[14] SEGERSTRALE, U., Defenders of the Truth, Oxford University Press, 2000. <<

^[15] LEEDS, A., BECKWITH, B., MADANSKY, Ch., CULVER, D., ALLEN, E., SCHREIER, H., INOUYE, H., BECKWITH, J., MILLER, L., DUNCAN, M., ROSENTHAL, M., PYERITZ, R., LEWONTIN, R. C., HUBBARD, R., CHOROVER, S., y GOULD, S., Letter to the New York Review of Books, 13 de noviembre de 1975. <<

^[16] SEGERSTRALE, U., Defenders of the Truth, Oxford University Press, 2000. <<

^[17] LEWONTIN, R., The Doctrine of DNA: Biology of Ideology, Penguin, 1993. <<

^[18] TOOBY, J. y COSMIDES, L., «The psychological foundations of culture», en The Adapted Mind (ed. BARKOW, J. H., COSMIDES, L., y TOOBY, J.), Oxford University Press, 1992. <<

^[19] Ibídem. <<

^[20] DALY, M. y WILSON, M., Homicide, Aldine, 1988. <<

^[21] HRDY, S., Mother Nature, Bailantine Books, 2000. <<

^[22] DURKHEIM, E., The rules of the Sociological Method, Free Press, 1895. [Las reglas del método sociológico, Barcelona, Folio, 2003]. <<

^[1] WOLFE, T., Hooking Up, Picador, 2000. <<

^[2] ELLIS, B. J. y GARBER, J., «Psychosocial antecedents of variation in girls pubertal timing: Maternal depression, stepfather presence, and marital and family stress», Child Development, 71, 2000, pp. 485–501. <<

^[3] HARRIS, J. R., The Nurture Assumption, Bloomsbury, 1998. <<

^[4] HARRIS, J. R., «Where is the child’s environment? A group socialization theory of development», Psychological Review, 102,1995, pp. 458–459. <<

^[5] WILLS, J. E., 1668: A Global History, Granta, 2001. <<

^[6] Pero otros estudios han revelado algunas correlaciones negativas muy claras entre padres e hijos: en dichos estudios el efecto de los progenitores era justo el contrario. Los hijos de los hippies se convertían en inversores financieros. <<

^[7] LYTTON, H., «Towards a model of family–environmental and child–biological influences on development», Developmental Review, 20, 2000, pp. 150–179. <<

^[8] MEDNICK, S. A., GABRIELLI, W. R, y HUTCHINGS, B., «Genetic influences in criminal convictions: Evidence from an adoption cohort», Science, 224,1984, pp. 891–894. <<

^[9] SCARR, S., «How people make their own environments: Implications for parents and policy makers», Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2, 1996, pp. 204–228. <<

^[10] COLLINS, W. A., MACCOBY, E. E., STEINBERG, L., HETHERINGTON, E. M., y BERNSTEIN, M. H., «The case for nature and nurture», American Psychologist, 55, 2000, pp. 218–232. <<

^[11] BENNETT, A. J., LESCH, K. R, HEILS, A., LONG, J. C., LORENZ, J. G., SHOAF, S. E., CHAMPOUX, M., SUOMI, S. J., LINNOILA, M. V., y HIGLEY, J. D., «Early experience and serotonin transporter gene variation interact to influence primate CNS function», Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 2002, pp. 118–122. <<

^[12] SMITH, A., The Wealth of Nations, Londres, 1776. [La riqueza de las naciones, Madrid, Alianza, 1999]. <<

^[13] Ibídem. <<

^[14] DURKHEIM, E., The División of Labour in Society, 1933. [Madrid, Vision Net, 2002]. <<

^[15] BUSS, D. M., The Evolution of Desire, Basic Books, 1994. [La evolución del deseo: estrategias del emparejamiento humano, Madrid, Alianza, 1997]. <<

^[16] LEWONTIN, R. C., «The apportionment of human diversity», Evolutionary Biology, 6,1972, pp. 381–398. <<

^[17] KURZBAN, R., TOOBY, J., y COSMIDES, L., «Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization», Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 2001, pp. 15387–15392. <<

^[18] CASPI, A., MCCLAY, J., MOFFITT, T., MILL, J., MARTIN, J., CRAIG, I. W., TAYLOR, A., y POULTON, R., «Rol of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children», Science, 297, 2002, pp. 851–854. Correspondencia por correo electrónico con Terrie Moffitt y Avshalom Caspi. Ver también el informe del Nuffield Council sobre Bioética: Genetics and Behavior: The Ethical Context, 2002. Como me dijo Judith Rich Harris, en el estudio de Dunedin, la correlación entre el abuso paren tal y un comportamiento antisocial no se puede considerar una relación causal. Puede ser que otro gen no descubierto afecte a ambos: la larga historia de suposiciones engañosas nos ha enseñado a ser cautos antes de aceptar que las acciones de los padres tienen efectos en los hijos. <<

^[19] JAMES, W., «The dilemma of determinism», en The Writings of William James (ed. MCDERMOTT, J. J.), University of Chicago Press, 1884. <<

^[20] WALTER, H., Neurophilosophy of Free Wil, MIT Press, 2001. <<

^[21] Ibídem. <<

^[22] SHAKESPEARE, W., Hamlet, acto 5, escena 2. <<

^[23] FREEMAN, W. J., Hozo Brains Make Up Their Minds, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999. <<

^[24] Entrevista a Francis Crick. <<

^[25] Entrevista a Tim Tully. <<

^[1] JAMES, W., «The moral equivalent of war. Discurso en la Universidad de Stanford», editado como «Leeture 11» en Memories and Studies, Longman Green and Co., 1906 (1911), pp. 267–296. <<

^[2] BOUCHARD, T., «Genes, environment, and personality», en The Nature–Nurture Debate: The Essential Readings (ed. CECI, S. J. y WILLIAMS, W. M.), Blackwell, 1999. <<

^[3] WILSON, E. O., On Human Nature, Harvard University Press, 1978. [Sobre la Naturaleza Humana, Barcelona, Círculo de Lectores, 1997]. <<

^[4] DAWKINS, R., «Selfish genes in race or politics», Nature 289, 1981, p. 528. <<

^[5] PINKER, S., How the Mind Works, Norton, 1997. [Cómo funciona la mente, Barcelona, Destino, 2004]. <<

^[6] ROSE, S., Lifelines, Penguin, 1997. [Trayectorias de vida, Barcelona, Granica, 2001]. <<

^[7] GOULD, S. J., Ever since Darwin, Burnett Books, 1978. [Desde Darwin (Reflexiones sobre Historia Natural), Hermann Blume, 1983]. <<

^[8] Lewontin, R., The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology, Penguin, 1993. <<

^[9] Entrevista a Tim Tully. <<